A minimal physical model for curvotaxis driven by curved protein complexes at the cell's leading edge.

Cells often migrate on curved surfaces inside the body, such as curved tissues, blood vessels, or highly curved protrusions of other cells. Recent in vitro experiments provide clear evidence that motile cells are affected by the curvature of the substrate on which they migrate, preferring certain curvatures to others, termed "curvotaxis." The origin and underlying mechanism that gives rise to this curvature sensitivity are not well understood. Here, we employ a "minimal cell" model which is composed of a vesicle that contains curved membrane protein complexes, that exert protrusive forces on the membrane (representing the pressure due to actin polymerization). This minimal-cell model gives rise to spontaneous emergence of a motile phenotype, driven by a lamellipodia-like leading edge. By systematically screening the behavior of this model on different types of curved substrates (sinusoidal, cylinder, and tube), we show that minimal ingredients and energy terms capture the experimental data. The model recovers the observed migration on the sinusoidal substrate, where cells move along the grooves (minima), while avoiding motion along the ridges. In addition, the model predicts the tendency of cells to migrate circumferentially on convex substrates and axially on concave ones. Both of these predictions are verified experimentally, on several cell types. Altogether, our results identify the minimization of membrane-substrate adhesion energy and binding energy between the membrane protein complexes as key players of curvotaxis in cell migration.

Mechanoresponse of Curved Epithelial Monolayers Lining Bowl-Shaped 3D Microwells.

The optimal functioning of many organs relies on the curved architecture of their epithelial tissues. However, the mechanoresponse of epithelia to changes in curvature remains misunderstood. Here, bowl-shaped microwells in hydrogels are designed via photopolymerization to faithfully replicate the shape and dimensions of lobular structures. Leveraging these hydrogel-based microwells, curved epithelial monolayers are engineered, and how in-plane and Gaussian curvatures at the microwell entrance influence epithelial behavior is investigated. Cells and nuclei around the microwell edge display a more pronounced centripetal orientation as the in-plane curvature decreases, and enhanced cell straightness and speed. Moreover, cells reorganize their actin cytoskeleton by forming a supracellular actin cable at the microwell edge, with its size becoming more pronounced as the in-plane curvature decreases. The Gaussian curvature at the microwell entrance enhances the maturation of the supracellular actin cable architecture and leads to a vertical orientation of nuclei toward the bottom of the microwell. Increasing Gaussian curvature results in flattened and elongated nuclear morphologies characterized by highly compacted chromatin states. This approach provides better understanding of the mechanoresponse of curved epithelial monolayers curvatures lining lobular structures. In addition, bowl-shaped microwells offer a powerful platform to study curvature-dependent mechanotransduction pathways in anatomically relevant 3D structures.

Stretch-injury promotes microglia activation with enhanced phagocytic and synaptic stripping activities.

Microglial cells, as the primary defense line in the central nervous system, play a crucial role in responding to various mechanical signals that can trigger their activation. Despite extensive research on the impact of chemical signaling on brain cells, the understanding of mechanical signaling in microglia remains limited. To bridge this gap, we subjected microglial cells to a singular mechanical stretch and compared their responses with those induced by lipopolysaccharide treatment, a well-established chemical activator. Here we show that stretching microglial cells leads to their activation, highlighting their significant mechanosensitivity. Stretched microglial cells exhibited distinct features, including elevated levels of Iba1 protein, a denser actin cytoskeleton, and increased persistence in migration. Unlike LPS-treated microglial cells, the secretory profile of chemokines and cytokines remained largely unchanged in response to stretching, except for TNF-α. Intriguingly, a single stretch injury resulted in more compacted chromatin and DNA damage, suggesting potential long-term genomic instabilities in stretched microglia. Using compartmentalized microfluidic chambers with neuronal networks, we observed that stretched microglial cells exhibited enhanced phagocytic and synaptic stripping activities. These findings collectively suggest that stretching events can unlock the immune potential of microglial cells, contributing to the maintenance of brain tissue homeostasis following mechanical injury.

Keratocytes migrate against flow with a roly-poly-like mechanism.

While cell migration can be directed by various mechanical cues such as force, deformation, stiffness, or flow, the associated mechanisms and functions may remain elusive. Single cell migration against flow, repeatedly reported with leukocytes, is arguably considered as active and mediated by integrin mechanotransduction, or passive and determined by a mechanical bias. Here, we reveal a phenotype of flow mechanotaxis with fish epithelial keratocytes that orient upstream or downstream at shear stresses around tens of dyn cm-2. We show that each cell has an intrinsic orientation that results from the mechanical interaction of flow with its morphology. The bulbous trailing edge of a keratocyte generates a hydrodynamical torque under flow that stabilizes an upstream orientation, just as the heavy lower edge of a roly-poly toy generates a gravitational torque that stabilizes an upright position. In turn, the wide and flat leading edge of keratocytes destabilizes upstream orientation, allowing the existence of two distinct phenotypes. To formalize these observations, we propose a simple mechanical model that considers keratocyte morphology as a hemisphere preceded by a wide thin sheet. Our findings show that this model can recapitulate the phase diagram of single cell orientation under flow without adjustable parameters. From a larger perspective, this passive mechanism of keratocytes flow mechanotaxis implies a potential absence of physiological function and evolution-driven process.

Mechanics and functional consequences of nuclear deformations.

As the home of cellular genetic information, the nucleus has a critical role in determining cell fate and function in response to various signals and stimuli. In addition to biochemical inputs, the nucleus is constantly exposed to intrinsic and extrinsic mechanical forces that trigger dynamic changes in nuclear structure and morphology. Emerging data suggest that the physical deformation of the nucleus modulates many cellular and nuclear functions. These functions have long been considered to be downstream of cytoplasmic signalling pathways and dictated by gene expression. In this Review, we discuss an emerging perspective on the mechanoregulation of the nucleus that considers the physical connections from chromatin to nuclear lamina and cytoskeletal filaments as a single mechanical unit. We describe key mechanisms of nuclear deformations in time and space and provide a critical review of the structural and functional adaptive responses of the nucleus to deformations. We then consider the contribution of nuclear deformations to the regulation of important cellular functions, including muscle contraction, cell migration and human disease pathogenesis. Collectively, these emerging insights shed new light on the dynamics of nuclear deformations and their roles in cellular mechanobiology.

Multiscale Mechanobiology in Brain Physiology and Diseases.

Increasing evidence suggests that mechanics play a critical role in regulating brain function at different scales. Downstream integration of mechanical inputs into biochemical signals and genomic pathways causes observable and measurable effects on brain cell fate and can also lead to important pathological consequences. Despite recent advances, the mechanical forces that influence neuronal processes remain largely unexplored, and how endogenous mechanical forces are detected and transduced by brain cells into biochemical and genetic programs have received less attention. In this review, we described the composition of brain tissues and their pronounced microstructural heterogeneity. We discuss the individual role of neuronal and glial cell mechanics in brain homeostasis and diseases. We highlight how changes in the composition and mechanical properties of the extracellular matrix can modulate brain cell functions and describe key mechanisms of the mechanosensing process. We then consider the contribution of mechanobiology in the emergence of brain diseases by providing a critical review on traumatic brain injury, neurodegenerative diseases, and neuroblastoma. We show that a better understanding of the mechanobiology of brain tissues will require to manipulate the physico-chemical parameters of the cell microenvironment, and to develop three-dimensional models that can recapitulate the complexity and spatial diversity of brain tissues in a reproducible and predictable manner. Collectively, these emerging insights shed new light on the importance of mechanobiology and its implication in brain and nerve diseases.

Keratin filaments mediate the expansion of extra-embryonic membranes in the post-gastrulation mouse embryo.

Mesoderm arises at gastrulation and contributes to both the mouse embryo proper and its extra-embryonic membranes. Two-photon live imaging of embryos bearing a keratin reporter allowed recording filament nucleation and elongation in the extra-embryonic region. Upon separation of amniotic and exocoelomic cavities, keratin 8 formed apical cables co-aligned across multiple cells in the amnion, allantois, and blood islands. An influence of substrate rigidity and composition on cell behavior and keratin content was observed in mesoderm explants. Embryos lacking all keratin filaments displayed a deflated extra-embryonic cavity, a narrow thick amnion, and a short allantois. Single-cell RNA sequencing of sorted mesoderm cells and micro-dissected amnion, chorion, and allantois, provided an atlas of transcriptomes with germ layer and regional information. It defined the cytoskeleton and adhesion expression profile of mesoderm-derived keratin 8-enriched cells lining the exocoelomic cavity. Those findings indicate a novel role for keratin filaments in the expansion of extra-embryonic structures and suggest mechanisms of mesoderm adaptation to the environment.

Appreciating the role of cell shape changes in the mechanobiology of epithelial tissues.

The wide range of epithelial cell shapes reveals the complexity and diversity of the intracellular mechanisms that serve to construct their morphology and regulate their functions. Using mechanosensitive steps, epithelial cells can sense a variety of different mechanochemical stimuli and adapt their behavior by reshaping their morphology. These changes of cell shape rely on a structural reorganization in space and time that generates modifications of the tensional state and activates biochemical cascades. Recent studies have started to unveil how the cell shape maintenance is involved in mechanical homeostatic tasks to sustain epithelial tissue folding, identity, and self-renewal. Here, we review relevant works that integrated mechanobiology to elucidate some of the core principles of how cell shape may be conveyed into spatial information to guide collective processes such as epithelial morphogenesis. Among many other parameters, we show that the regulation of the cell shape can be understood as the result of the interplay between two counteracting mechanisms: actomyosin contractility and intercellular adhesions, and that both do not act independently but are functionally integrated to operate on molecular, cellular, and tissue scales. We highlight the role of cadherin-based adhesions in force-sensing and mechanotransduction, and we report recent developments that exploit physics of liquid crystals to connect cell shape changes to orientational order in cell aggregates. Finally, we emphasize that the further intermingling of different disciplines to develop new mechanobiology assays will lead the way toward a unified picture of the contribution of cell shape to the pathophysiological behavior of epithelial tissues.

Inflammatory Molecules Released by Mechanically Injured Astrocytes Trigger Presynaptic Loss in Cortical Neuronal Networks.

Deformation, compression, or stretching of brain tissues cause diffuse axonal injury (DAI) and induce structural and functional alterations of astrocytes, the most abundant cell type in the brain. To gain further insight into the role of mechanically activated astrocytes on neuronal networks, this study was designed to investigate whether cytokines released by mechanically activated astrocytes can affect the growth and synaptic connections of cortical neuronal networks. Astrocytes were cultivated on elastic membranes and subjected to repetitive mechanical insults, whereas well-defined protein micropatterns were used to form standardized neuronal networks. GFAP staining showed that astrocytes were mechanically activated after two cycles of stretch and mesoscale discovery assays indicated that injured astrocytes released four major cytokines. To understand the role of these cytokines, neuronal networks were cultured with the supernatant of healthy or mechanically activated astrocytes, and the individual contribution of the proinflammatory cytokine tumor necrosis factor-α (TNF-α) was studied. We found that the supernatant of two-cycle stretched astrocytes decreased presynaptic terminals and indicated that TNF-α must be considered a key player of the synaptic loss. Furthermore, our results indicate that cytokines released by injured astrocytes significantly modulate the balance between TNFR1 and TNFR2 receptors by enhancing R2 receptors. We demonstrated that TNF-α is not involved in this process, suggesting a predominant role of other secreted cytokines. Together, these results contribute to a better understanding of the consequences of repetitive astrocyte deformations and highlight the role of inflammatory signaling pathways in synaptic plasticity and modulation of TNFR1 and TNFR2 receptors.

Collective migration during a gap closure in a two-dimensional haptotactic model.

The ability of cells to respond to substrate-bound protein gradients is crucial for many physiological processes, such as immune response, neurogenesis and cancer cell migration. However, the difficulty to produce well-controlled protein gradients has long been a limitation to our understanding of collective cell migration in response to haptotaxis. Here we use a photopatterning technique to create circular, square and linear fibronectin (FN) gradients on two-dimensional (2D) culture substrates. We observed that epithelial cells spread preferentially on zones of higher FN density, creating rounded or elongated gaps within epithelial tissues over circular or linear FN gradients, respectively. Using time-lapse experiments, we demonstrated that the gap closure mechanism in a 2D haptotaxis model requires a significant increase of the leader cell area. In addition, we found that gap closures are slower on decreasing FN densities than on homogenous FN-coated substrate and that fresh closed gaps are characterized by a lower cell density. Interestingly, our results showed that cell proliferation increases in the closed gap region after maturation to restore the cell density, but that cell-cell adhesive junctions remain weaker in scarred epithelial zones. Taken together, our findings provide a better understanding of the wound healing process over protein gradients, which are reminiscent of haptotaxis.

Engineering slit-like channels for studying the growth of epithelial tissues in 3D-confined spaces.

The development of epithelial lumens in ducts is essential to the functioning of various organs and in organogenesis. Ductal elongation requires the collective migration of cell cohorts in three-dimensional (3D) confined spaces, while maintaining their epithelial integrity. Epithelial lumens generally adopt circular morphologies, however abnormalities in complex physiological environments can lead to the narrowing of glandular spaces that adopt elongated and slit-like morphologies. Here, we describe a simple method to form epithelial tissues in microchannels of various widths (100-300 µm) with a constant height of 25 µm that mimic elongated geometries of glandular spaces. The significance of this biomimetic platform has been evidenced by studying the migration of epithelial cell sheets inside these narrow slits of varying dimensions. We show that the growth of epithelial tissues in 3D-confined slits leads to a gradient of cell density along the slit axis and that the migration cell velocity depends on the extent of the spatial confinement. Our findings indicate that nuclear orientation is higher for leader cells and depends on the slit width, whereas YAP protein was predominantly localized in the nucleus of leader cells. This method will pave the way to studies aiming at understanding how 3D-confined spaces, which are reminiscent of in vivo pathological conditions, can affect the growth and the homeostasis of epithelial tissues.

Producing Collagen Micro-stripes with Aligned Fibers for Cell Migration Assays.

INTRODUCTION: The orientation of collagen fibers in native tissues plays an important role in cell signaling and mediates the progression of tumor cells in breast cancer by a contact guidance mechanism. Understanding how migration of epithelial cells is directed by the alignment of collagen fibers requires in vitro assays with standardized orientations of collagen fibers. METHODS: To address this issue, we produced micro-stripes with aligned collagen fibers using an easy-to-use and versatile approach based on the aspiration of a collagen solution within a microchannel. Glass coverslips were functionalized with a (3-aminopropyl)triethoxysilane/glutaraldehyde linkage to covalently anchor micro-stripes of aligned collagen fibers, whereas microchannels were functionalized with a poly(ethylene oxide)-poly(propylene oxide)-poly(ethylene oxide) (PEO-PPO-PEO) nonionic triblock polymer to prevent adhesion of the collagen micro-stripes. RESULTS: Using this strategy, microchannels can be peeled off to expose micro-stripes of aligned collagen fibers without affecting their mechanical integrity. We used time-lapse confocal reflection microscopy to characterize the polymerization kinetics of collagen networks for different concentrations and the orientation of collagen fibers as a function of the microchannel width. Our results indicate a non-linear concentration dependence of the area of fluorescence, suggesting that the architecture of collagen networks is sensitive to small changes in concentration. We show the possibility to influence the collagen fibril coverage by adjusting the concentration of the collagen solution. CONCLUSION: We applied this novel approach to study the migration of epithelial cells, demonstrating that collagen micro-stripes with aligned fibers represent a valuable in-vitro assay for studying cell contact guidance mechanisms.

Actomyosin contractility scales with myoblast elongation and enhances differentiation through YAP nuclear export.

Skeletal muscle fibers are formed by the fusion of mononucleated myoblasts into long linear myotubes, which differentiate and reorganize into multinucleated myofibers that assemble in bundles to form skeletal muscles. This fundamental process requires the elongation of myoblasts into a bipolar shape, although a complete understanding of the mechanisms governing skeletal muscle fusion is lacking. To address this question, we consider cell aspect ratio, actomyosin contractility and the Hippo pathway member YAP as potential regulators of the fusion of myoblasts into myotubes. Using fibronectin micropatterns of different geometries and traction force microscopy, we investigated how myoblast elongation affects actomyosin contractility. Our findings indicate that cell elongation enhances actomyosin contractility in myoblasts, which regulate their actin network to their spreading area. Interestingly, we found that the contractility of cell pairs increased after their fusion and raise on elongated morphologies. Furthermore, our findings indicate that myoblast elongation modulates nuclear orientation and triggers cytoplasmic localization of YAP, increasing evidence that YAP is a key regulator of mechanotransduction in myoblasts. Taken together, our findings support a mechanical model where actomyosin contractility scales with myoblast elongation and enhances the differentiation of myoblasts into myotubes through YAP nuclear export.

Kinked Silicon Nanowires: Superstructures by Metal-Assisted Chemical Etching.

We report on metal-assisted chemical etching of Si for the synthesis of mechanically stable, hybrid crystallographic orientation Si superstructures with high aspect ratio, above 200. This method sustains high etching rates and facilitates reproducible results. The protocol enables the control of the number, angle, and location of the kinks via successive etch-quench sequences. We analyzed relevant Au mask catalyst features to systematically assess their impact on a wide spectrum of etched morphologies that can be easily attained and customized by fine-tuning of the critical etching parameters. For instance, the designed kinked Si nanowires can be incorporated in biological cells without affecting their viability. An accessible numerical model is provided to explain the etch profiles and the physicochemical events at the Si/Au-electrolyte interface and offers guidelines for the development of finite-element modeling of metal-assisted Si chemical etching.

Innovative Tools for Mechanobiology: Unraveling Outside-In and Inside-Out Mechanotransduction.

Cells and tissues can sense and react to the modifications of the physico-chemical properties of the extracellular environment (ECM) through integrin-based adhesion sites and adapt their physiological response in a process called mechanotransduction. Due to their critical localization at the cell-ECM interface, transmembrane integrins are mediators of bidirectional signaling, playing a key role in "outside-in" and "inside-out" signal transduction. After presenting the basic conceptual fundamentals related to cell mechanobiology, we review the current state-of-the-art technologies that facilitate the understanding of mechanotransduction signaling pathways. Finally, we highlight innovative technological developments that can help to advance our understanding of the mechanisms underlying nuclear mechanotransduction.

Live nanoscopic to mesoscopic topography reconstruction with an optical microscope for chemical and biological samples.

Macroscopic properties of physical and biological processes like friction, wetting, and adhesion or cell migration are controlled by interfacial properties at the nanoscopic scale. In an attempt to bridge simultaneously investigations at different scales, we demonstrate here how optical microscopy in Wet-Surface Ellipsometric Enhanced Contrast (Wet-SEEC) mode offers imaging and measurement of thin films at solid/liquid interfaces in the range 1-500 nm with lateral optical resolution. A live, label-free and noninvasive methodology integrated with microfluidic devices allowed here characterization of polymers and proteins patterns together with corresponding phenotypes of living cells.

A new method allowing long-term potentiation recordings in hippocampal organotypic slices.

BACKGROUND: Hippocampal organotypic slices are used to improve the understanding of synaptic plasticity mechanisms because they allow longer term studies compared to acute slices. However, it is more delicate to keep cultures alive in the recording system outside in vitro conditions. Experiments from the organotypic cultures are common but the handling of slices is rarely described in the literature, even though tissue preservation is crucial. Instruments are sometimes required to extract the slices from the culture inserts but this approach is delicate and can lead to damage, given how strongly the slices are attached to the insert. METHODS: A new configuration is proposed to secure the transfer of slices from the incubator to the recording chamber through an adaptor piece that can be designed for any model of chamber and/or insert. The adaptor is a Plexiglas ring in which a culture insert containing the slice can be easily introduced and stabilized. This system allows slices to be placed in the interface for electrophysiological investigations without having to detach them from the insert. That way, no damage is caused and the recording system can safely hold the slices, maintaining them close to culture conditions. RESULTS: In addition to the description of the adaptation system, slices were characterized. Their viability was validated and microglial expression was observed. According to the experimental conditions, neuroprotective ramified microgliocytes are present. Dendritic spines studies were also performed to determine neuronal network maturity in culture. Moreover, SKF 83822 hydrobromide and three trains of 100 pulses at 100 Hz with a 10-min inter-train interval are suggested to induce long-term potentiation and to record an increase of fEPSP amplitude and slope. CONCLUSION: This paper provides detailed information on the preparation and characterization of hippocampal organotypic slices, a new recording configuration more suitable for cultures, and a long-term potentiation protocol combining SKF and trains.

Probing cytoskeletal pre-stress and nuclear mechanics in endothelial cells with spatiotemporally controlled (de-)adhesion kinetics on micropatterned substrates.

The mechanical properties of living cells reflect their propensity to migrate and respond to external forces. Both cellular and nuclear stiffnesses are strongly influenced by the rigidity of the extracellular matrix (ECM) through reorganization of the cyto- and nucleoskeletal protein connections. Changes in this architectural continuum affect cell mechanics and underlie many pathological conditions. In this context, an accurate and combined quantification of the mechanical properties of both cells and nuclei can contribute to a better understanding of cellular (dys-)function. To address this challenge, we have established a robust method for probing cellular and nuclear deformation during spreading and detachment from micropatterned substrates. We show that (de-)adhesion kinetics of endothelial cells are modulated by substrate stiffness and rely on the actomyosin network. We combined this approach with measurements of cell stiffness by magnetic tweezers to show that relaxation dynamics can be considered as a reliable parameter of cellular pre-stress in adherent cells. During the adhesion stage, large cellular and nuclear deformations occur over a long time span (>60 min). Conversely, nuclear deformation and condensed chromatin are relaxed in a few seconds after detachment. Finally, our results show that accumulation of farnesylated prelamin leads to modifications of the nuclear viscoelastic properties, as reflected by increased nuclear relaxation times. Our method offers an original and non-intrusive way of simultaneously gauging cellular and nuclear mechanics, which can be extended to high-throughput screens of pathological conditions and potential countermeasures.

Deregulation of focal adhesion formation and cytoskeletal tension due to loss of A-type lamins.

The nuclear lamina mechanically integrates the nucleus with the cytoskeleton and extracellular environment and regulates gene expression. These functions are exerted through direct and indirect interactions with the lamina's major constituent proteins, the A-type lamins, which are encoded by the LMNA gene. Using quantitative stable isotope labeling-based shotgun proteomics we have analyzed the proteome of human dermal fibroblasts in which we have depleted A-type lamins by means of a sustained siRNA-mediated LMNA knockdown. Gene ontology analysis revealed that the largest fraction of differentially produced proteins was involved in actin cytoskeleton organization, in particular proteins involved in focal adhesion dynamics, such as actin-related protein 2 and 3 (ACTR2/3), subunits of the ARP2/3 complex, and fascin actin-bundling protein 1 (FSCN1). Functional validation using quantitative immunofluorescence showed a significant reduction in the size of focal adhesion points in A-type lamin depleted cells, which correlated with a reduction in early cell adhesion capacity and an increased cell motility. At the same time, loss of A-type lamins led to more pronounced stress fibers and higher traction forces. This phenotype could not be mimicked or reversed by experimental modulation of the STAT3-IL6 pathway, but it was partly recapitulated by chemical inhibition of the ARP2/3 complex. Thus, our data suggest that the loss of A-type lamins perturbs the balance between focal adhesions and cytoskeletal tension. This imbalance may contribute to mechanosensing defects observed in certain laminopathies.